Annals of Coloproctology

Original Articles

Colonoscopy

Endoscopic treatment of rectal neuroendocrine tumors: a consecutive analysis of multi-institutional data: Jae Won Shin, Eun-Jung Lee, Sung Sil Park, Kyung Su Han, Chang Gyun Kim, Hee Chul Chang, Won Youn Kim, Eui Chul Jeong, Dong Hyun Choi; Ann Coloproctol. 2025;41(3):221-231. Published online June 30, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/ac.2024.00927.0132

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Abstract PDF: Purpose
The incidence of rectal neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) is increasing owing to a rise in colonoscopy screening. For the endoscopic removal of NETs, complete resection including the submucosal layer is essential. Therefore, appropriate endoscopic resection techniques are of critical importance. This study aimed to analyze data on rectal NETs and help provide guidance for their endoscopic treatment.
Methods
A retrospective analysis was conducted on data from patients who underwent resection for rectal NETs at 6 institutions between 2010 and 2021.
Results
A total of 1,406 tumors were resected from 1,401 patients. During a mean follow-up period of 55.4 months, there were 8 cases (0.5%) of recurrence. Overall, a complete resection was achieved in 77.6% of the patients, with modified endoscopic mucosal resection (mEMR) and endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) showing the highest rate at 86.0% and 84.9%, respectively, followed by conventional EMR (cEMR; 68.7%) and snare polypectomy (59.0%). In the subgroup analysis, statistically significant differences were observed in complete resection rates based on tumor size. ESD and mEMR demonstrated significantly higher complete resection rates compared with cEMR. Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that tumor location of the lower rectum and advanced techniques (mEMR and ESD) were significant prognostic factors for complete resection rates.
Conclusion
When encountering rectal subepithelial lesions on endoscopic examination, endoscopists should consider the possibility of NETs and carefully decide on the endoscopic treatment method. Therefore, it is advisable to perform mEMR or ESD to achieve complete resection, especially for rectal NETs measuring ≤10 mm.

Malignant disease,Prognosis

Recurrence after endoscopic resection of small rectal neuroendocrine tumors: a retrospective cohort study: Sukit Pattarajierapan, Supakij Khomvilai; Ann Coloproctol. 2022;38(3):216-222. Published online July 20, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/ac.2021.00017.0002

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Abstract PDF

Purpose
According to the European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society consensus guidelines, rectal neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) up to 10 mm in size and without poor prognostic factors could be safely removed with endoscopic resection, suggesting omitting surveillance colonoscopy after complete resection. However, the benefit of surveillance colonoscopy is still unknown. In this study, we aimed to report the outcomes after endoscopic resection of small rectal NETs using our surveillance protocol.
Methods
This retrospective cohort study included patients who underwent endoscopic resection for rectal NETs sized up to 10 mm from January 2013 to December 2019 at our center. We excluded patients without surveillance colonoscopy and those lost to follow-up. We strictly performed surveillance colonoscopy 1 year after endoscopic resection, and every 2 to 3 years thereafter. The primary outcomes were tumor recurrence and occurrence of metachronous tumors during followup.
Results
Of the 54 patients who underwent endoscopic resection for rectal NETs during the study period, 46 were enrolled in this study. The complete resection rates by endoscopic mucosal resection, precutting endoscopic mucosal resection, and endoscopic submucosal dissection were 92.3% (12 of 13), 100% (21 of 21), and 100% (12 of 12), respectively. There was no local or distant recurrence during the median follow-up of 39 months. However, we found that 8.7% (4 of 46) of patients developed metachronous NETs. All metachronous lesions were treated with precutting endoscopic mucosal resection.
Conclusion
Surveillance colonoscopy is reasonable after endoscopic resection of small rectal NETs for timely detection and treatment of metachronous lesions. However, larger collaborative studies are needed to influence the guidelines.

Citations

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Comparison of the efficacy of endoscopic submucosal dissection and transanal endoscopic microsurgery in the treatment of rectal neuroendocrine tumors ≤ 2 cm
Rui Jin, Xiaoyin Bai, Tianming Xu, Xi Wu, Qipu Wang, Jingnan Li
Frontiers in Endocrinology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Current status of the role of endoscopy in evaluation and management of gastrointestinal and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors
Zaheer Nabi, Sundeep Lakhtakia, D. Nageshwar Reddy
Indian Journal of Gastroenterology.2023; 42(2): 158. CrossRef

Case Reports

Rhabdomyolysis Following Colonoscopy: A Case Report: Jin Yong Jeong, Kap Tae Kim, Mi Jin Kim, Yea Jeong Kim; Ann Coloproctol. 2018;34(1):52-55. Published online February 28, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/ac.2018.34.1.52

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We experienced a case of 1 patient who died from rhabdomyolysis-related complications after colonoscopy. A 60-year-old man had undergone an ‘uncomplicated’ colonoscopic polypectomy. Approximately 10 hours following this procedure, the patient complained of increasing left abdominal pain. His computed tomography image showed free gas, but his operative findings revealed no macroscopic perforation or abscess formation. Eight hours after the operation, the patient presented with myoglobulinuria, and we diagnosed the condition to be rhabdomyolysis. Based on this case, we recommend that rhabdomyolysis be added to the list of complications following a colonoscopic procedure. Moreover, for prevention and early treatment, endoscopists should be attentive to the risk factors and signs/symptoms of rhabdomyolysis.

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Rhabdomyolysis following colorectal endoscopic submucosal dissection: A case report
Ying Chen, Wenxuan Zhang, Junqiang Cai, Min Zhong
Clinical Case Reports.2024;[Epub] CrossRef

Intramural Recurrence Without Mucosal Lesions After an Endoscopic Mucosal Resection for Early Colorectal Cancer: Min Sung Kim, Nam Kyu Kim, Ji Hye Park; Ann Coloproctol. 2013;29(3):126-129. Published online June 30, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/ac.2013.29.3.126

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7 Citations

Abstract PDF

Advances in endoscopic instruments and techniques have enabled increased detection and removal of early colorectal cancer (ECC), which is defined as a tumor whose invasion is limited to the mucosa or submucosa. Some cases can be treated by endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR). However, local recurrence frequently occurs after an EMR for ECC. The recurrence pattern is usually intramural recurrence with a mucosal lesion at the EMR's site. We report the cases of two patients with intramural recurrence without mucosal lesions after an EMR for ECC. These cases indicate that a local recurrence after an EMR for ECC can appear as an intramural recurrence without mucosal lesions at a previous EMR site or another site, although this presentation is very unusual.

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Multidisciplinary Treatment Strategy for Early Colon Cancer: A Review-An English Version
Gyung Mo Son, Su Bum Park, Tae Un Kim, Byung-Soo Park, In Young Lee, Joo-Young Na, Dong Hoon Shin, Sang Bo Oh, Sung Hwan Cho, Hyun Sung Kim, Hyung Wook Kim
Journal of the Anus, Rectum and Colon.2022; 6(4): 203. CrossRef
Growth-inhibition of S180 residual-tumor by combination of cyclophosphamide and chitosan oligosaccharides in vivo
Xingchen Zhai, Shoujun Yuan, Xin Yang, Pan Zou, Yong Shao, A.M. Abd El-Aty, Ahmet Hacımüftüoğlu, Jing Wang
Life Sciences.2018; 202: 21. CrossRef
Handling and Pathology Reporting of Gastrointestinal Endoscopic Mucosal Resection
Bita Geramizadeh, David A. Owen
Middle East Journal of Digestive Diseases.2017; 9(1): 5. CrossRef
Feasibility of mesorectal vascular invasion in predicting early distant metastasis in patients with stage T3 rectal cancer based on rectal MRI
Young Chul Kim, Jai Keun Kim, Myeong-Jin Kim, Jei Hee Lee, Young Bae Kim, Sung Jae Shin
European Radiology.2016; 26(2): 297. CrossRef
Antitumor Effects of Orally and Intraperitoneally Administered Chitosan Oligosaccharides (COSs) on S180‐Bearing/Residual Mouse
Pan Zou, Xin Yang, Yanxin Zhang, Pengfei Du, Shoujun Yuan, Dexuan Yang, Jing Wang
Journal of Food Science.2016;[Epub] CrossRef
Re-evaluation of indications and outcomes of endoscopic excision procedures for colorectal tumors: a review
S. Cai, Y. Zhong, P. Zhou, J. Xu, L. Yao
Gastroenterology Report.2014; 2(1): 27. CrossRef
Anticancer activity of tuftsin-derived T peptide in postoperative residual tumors
Yinghong An, Linna Li, Dexuan Yang, Na Jia, Chengwang Xu, Qiong Wang, Shanshan Wang, Shoujun Yuan
Anti-Cancer Drugs.2014; 25(8): 857. CrossRef

Original Article

Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection for Colorectal Neoplasia: Early Outcomes After 260 Cases.: Lee, Eun Jung , Lee, Jae Bum , Lee, Suk Hee , Kim, Do Sun , Lee, Doo Han , Youk, Eui Gon; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 2009;25(3):157-164.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/jksc.2009.25.3.157

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Abstract PDF

PURPOSE
Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD), a recently introduced endoscopic technique, makes it possible to perform an en-bloc resection of a lesion regardless of its size. The aim of this study was to report early experiences with colorectal ESD performed in our hospital.
METHODS
Between October 2006 and December 2008, we performed an ESD for 260 consecutive cases of colorectal neoplasia in 255 patients. We evaluated the clinical outcomes, except for two failure cases of bowel perforation.
RESULTS
The mean resected tumor size was 24.2+/-9.8 (5-60) mm. Our overall endoscopic en-bloc resection rate was 93.0% (240/258). and the pathologically margin free rate was 91.5% (236/258). Perforation occurred in 7.7% (20/260) of the cases. In 17 patients, perforation was managed by endoscopic clipping without salvage surgery; the other three patients underwent a laparoscopic operation. Pathological examination showed an adenocarcinoma in 35.4% of the cases (92/260). We recommended additional radical surgery in 13 cases (submucosal invasion less than 1 mm with unfavorable pathology: 1 case; unknown depth of submucosal invasion: 1 case; submucosal invasion > or =1 mm: 9 cases; invasion to proper muscle: 2 cases). We were able to check the recurrence rate through colonoscopy for 125 patients. During the mean follow-up period of 8.0+/-4.3 (3-21) mo, there were no recurrences.
CONCLUSION
ESD was technically difficult, had a substantial risk of perforation, and needed a long procedure time. However, ESD enabled en-bloc resection of large colorectal tumors. As experience with the technique increases, ESD might gradually replace piecemeal endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and radical colon resection in the treatment of colorectal tumors.

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Follow-up Results of Endoscopic Mucosal Resection for Early Colorectal Cancer
Hee Jung Lee, Hyun Yong Jeong, Nam Hwan Park, Sun Chang Hong, Gwan Woo Nam, Hee Seok Moon, Eaum Seok Lee, Seok Hyun Kim, Jae Kyu Sung, Byung Seok Lee
The Korean Journal of Gastroenterology.2011; 57(4): 230. CrossRef

Case Report

A Case of Colonic Cavernous Hemangioma Misdiagnosed as a Pedunculated Polyp.: Yi, Kum Ho , Hahm, Ki Baik; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 2009;25(2):125-128.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3393/jksc.2009.25.2.125

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Abstract PDF: Gastrointestinal hemangioma is a relatively uncommon benign vascular tumor that can occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract. It is the second most common vascular lesion of the colon and a clinically important entity because of the possibility of massive hemorrhage when complicated. In gross appearance, hemangioma presents variously as a pedunculated, subpedunculated, or flat elevated lesion similar to a submucosal tumor. A typical case of hemangioma is relatively easy to diagnose because the lesion presents as translucent blue-purple vessels under the mucosa. However, it can be difficult to diagnose in some cases, especially if it does not have its usual characteristic color or is covered with normal mucosa. We incidentally found a colonic hemangioma that had the unusual appearance of a pedunculated polypoid lesion with normal mucosa. It was misdiagnosed as a pedunculated polyp with a long, thick neck and treated by using an endoscopic mucosal resection.

Original Articles

Follow-up Results of Endoscopic Mucosal Resection for Early Colorectal Cancer.: Lee, Hyung Suk , Lee, Seokyoung , Seo, Ji Hyun , Kwack, Kyeng Kunn , Kim, Joo Sung , Jung, Hyun Chae , Song, In Sung; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 2006;22(2):103-112.

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Abstract PDF: PURPOSE
Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) for early colorectal cancer (ECC) is increasing, but in Korea, little is known about long-term results of this treatment, especially in cases of incomplete resection. In this study, we reviewed the records of patients with ECC who underwent EMR, and we analysed the clinical, endoscopic, and histologic findings, as well as the follow-up data, to evaluate the effectiveness and the long-term results of EMR.
METHODS
From May 1995 to December 2003, 45 patients underwent EMR for ECC at Seoul National University Hospital and followed for over 10 months. Their medical records were reviewed retrospectively.
RESULTS
45 patients with average age of 62 accounted for 47 ECCs out of 164 colon mucosal lesions. En-bloc resection rate was 78.7%. Submucosal invasion was found in 10 cases (21.3%). De novo cancer rate was 12.8% and relatively high in submucosal cancer (40%). The complete resection rate was 70.2%. During the mean follow-up period of 25 months, residual tumor growth occurred in 3 out of 14 incompletely resected cases, and that was related to piecemeal resection. One of those 3 patients underwent surgical resection due to submucosal invasion, and the other two were treated endoscopically with no additional abnormal findings. No tumor recurred in completely resected cases.
CONCLUSIONS
A complete en-bloc resection was a prerequisite for prevention of tumor recurrence. In cases of incomplete resection, especially those performed using piecemeal method, within 3 months after the resection and within 1 year thereafter, follow-ups are essential for the early detection of tumor regrowth, and additional endoscopic treatment can achieve complete removal of residual tumor, despite initial incomplete resection.

Rectal Carcinoid: Effectiveness of Endoscopic Resection.: Park, Weon Kap , Kim, Hyun Shig , Cho, Kyung A , Hwang, Do Yeon , Kim, Kuhn Uk , Kang, Yong Won , Yoon, Seo Gue , Lee, Kwang Real , Lee, Jong Kyun , Lee, Jung Dal , Kim, Kwang Yun; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 2000;16(2):109-114.

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Abstract PDF: PURPOSE
Small-sized carcinoids, less than 1 cm, are easily detected using flexible sigmoidoscopy or total colonoscopy and can be treated by local excision. Recently, there has been many advances in the technique of endoscopic resection. The aim of this study was to determine the endoscopic findings of a rectal carcinoid and to evaluate the effectiveness of endoscopic resection.
METHODS
We experienced 22 rectal carcinoids in 21 patients who were treated by endoscopic resection from June 1996 to February 1999. Nineteen cases were followed for an average of 21 months. Follow-up studies consisted of chest P-A, hepatic ultrasonography, and total colonoscopy.
RESULTS
The male-to-female ratio was 1.6 to 1. The most common age group was the 4th decade. The tumor was located at the lower rectum in 10 patients, at the upper rectum in 10 patients, and at the rectosigmoid junction in 2 patients. The tumor sizes ranged from 3 to 12 mm in diameter and were smaller than 10 mm in 20 cases (90.1%). Endoscopic finding revealed that the tumors were covered by a normally appearing mucosa in 12 cases, were yellow-discolored polyps in 17 cases, and were sessile-type tumors in 19 cases. The method of treatment was an endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR, 14 cases) or a snare polypectomy (8 cases). Microscopically positive margins were noticed in four cases, two cases of EMR (2/14, 14%) and two cases of snare polypectomy (2/8, 25%). All the patients were alive and clinically free of disease; however, the duration of the follow-up is short.
CONCLUSIONS
Endoscopic resection for rectal carcinoid tumors smaller than 1 cm in diameter is a safe, functional, time-saving, and effective treatment. If the tumor suggests a carcinoid, EMR is advised rather than a polypectomy even though the tumor is small. Microscopically positive margins are not absolute indications for further surgery in the treatment of carcinoids smaller than 1 cm in diameter. It is much more important for an endoscopist to be confident that the endoscopic resection is done completely. It is necessary to identify the factors influencing the malignancy potential and to have a longer follow-up.

Endoscopic Characteristics and Management of.: Kim, Hyun Shig , Cho, Kyung A , Kim, Kuhu Uk; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 1999;15(5):405-416.

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Abstract PDF: PURPOSE
A laterally spreading tumor (LST) has its own characteristic features and growth pattern. Information about LST is scanty in Korea, therefore this study was designed in order to contribute to the literature.
METHODS
In this study, 43 patients with LSTs were included. The diagnoses were made by colonoscopy in all cases. Treatment options included endoscopic resection, transanal excision, and surgical resection. In reviewing and analyzing the cases, we made a special emphasis on size, classification, histology, and treatment.
RESULTS
The most frequent location was the rectum, followed by the sigmoid colon and the ascending colon in that order. Lesions smaller than 20 mm accounted for 69.8%. Granular homogeneous LSTs, 41.9%. Lesions larger than 20 mm, except granular homogeneous LSTs, showed an abrupt increase in malignancy rate. Tubular adenomas accounted for 65.1%. The overall malignancy rate was 20.9%, and the submucosal cancer rate, 9.3%. There were no malignancies in the granular homogeneous LSTs. The malignancy rate for the mixed-nodule type lesions was 33.3% (4/12), and the nongranular LSTs, 38.5% (5/13). Polypectomy was done in 37.2% of the lesions, endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) in 16.3%, and endoscopic piecemeal mucosal resection (EPMR) in 16.3%. The overall endoscopic resection rate was 83.7% (36/43). EMR was applicable to lesions smaller than 20 mm, and EPMR to those larger than 20 mm. Transanal resection was done in 2 cases with lesions. Five cases were resected surgically. Four of them were submucosal invasive lesions, and one, a mucosal lesion which was wide and had initially been thought to be a submucosal cancer. There were two recurrences during the average 15-month follow-up period. The follow-up rate was 81.4% (35/43). Of these 2 recurring cases, one patient was treated endoscopically and the other, transanally.
CONCLUSIONS
LSTs show different behavior depending on the endoscopic classification. Granular homogeneous LSTs are seldom larger than 30 mm and are good candidates for endoscopic treatment. The mixed-nodule type and the nongranular type show a marked predisposition to malignancy when they are over 20 mm, and nongranular-type LSTs have a higher rate of submucosal invasive cancers. Thus, in the cases of the mixed-nodule and nongranular types, careful consideration should be given for deciding between endoscopic treatment and surgical resection. Complete resection should be assured to prevent recurrence, and follow-up surveillance is required in all lesions for more than 3 to 5 years.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Depressed Colorectal Neoplastic Lesion.: Kim, Hyun Shig , Park, Weon Kap , Hwang, Do Yean , Kim, Kuhn Uk , Lee, Kwang Real , Yoo, Jung Jun , Lim, Seok Won , Lee, Jong Kyun; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 1999;15(3):159-167.

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Abstract PDF: PURPOSE
Depressed colorectal cancer is a newly recognized colorectal cancer. It has the characteristics of rapid growth and early invasion of the submucosa. Accordingly, recognition of that lesion is important. However, it is still rarely detected in Korea. This study was designed to evaluate the characteristics of depressed colorectal neoplastic lesions.
METHODS
We experienced 22 cases of depressed neoplastic lesions from January 1997 to December 1998. All of them were detected by performing colonoscopy. Among them, 6 were early colorectal cancers. The twenty-two cases accounted for 1.3% of all neoplastic lesions but advanced colorectal cancers encountered during the same period, and the six accounted for 6.6% of all early colorectal cancers during that period. We reviewed and analyzed those 22 lesions with respect to their clinicopathologic characteristics, especially size and histology.
RESULTS
The most common age group was the 6th decade. The male-to-female ratio was 2.7 to 1. The predilection of sites were the descending colon, the transverse colon, and the sigmoid colon in that order. The most common size was 3~4 mm, 9 lesions (40.9%) and the next was 5~6 mm, 7 lesions (31.8%). Twenty lesions (90.9%) were 8 mm or smaller in size. The overall malignancy rate was 27.3% (6/22), comprising 9.1% (2/22) for mucosal cancers, and 18.2% (4/22) for submucosal ones. The two lesions which were larger than 10 mm were submucosal cancers. Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) was the most common type of treatment, accounting for 59.1%. Two submucosal cancers and one mucosal cancer were operated on without any endoscopic treatment. That one mucosal cancer had initially been suspected of being a submucosal one upon endoscopic examination. There were neither complications nor recurrences during the average 10-month follow-up.
CONCLUSIONS
The target for detecting and treating depressed colorectal cancer should be lesions below 10 mm in size, and the treatment of choice should be EMR.

Endoscopic Mucosal Resection and Its Clinical.: Kim, Hyun Shig , Park, Weon Kap , Hwang, Do Yeon; J Korean Soc Coloproctol. 1999;15(1):83-90.

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Abstract PDF: PURPOSE
Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) or endoscopic piecemeal mucosal resection (EPMR) is a useful method for treating benign neoplastic lesions and selected cases of early colorectal cancers, especially those cancers with flat or depressed shapes. However, clinical data concerning EMR or EPMR are still lacking. Accordingly, we designed this study to review and analyze our cases for more information and in order to achieve more adequate and prudential application.
METHODS
We performed 2609 colonoscopic polypectomies from January 1997 to December 1998. Among those, 77 lesions (3.0%) were treated by using the EMR or the EPMR technique. We analyzed those 77 lesions with special reference to size, configuration, and histologic diagnosis.
RESULTS
The most common age group was the 5th decade. The male-to-female ratio was 1.75:1. The most common sites of the lesions were the rectum and the sigmoid colon. Most of the lesions were equal to or smaller than 15 mm in size (97.4%). Flat, elevated lesions were the most common type (39%), followed by sessile (31.2%) and depressed (18.2%) lesions in order. Adenomas and adenocarcinomas accounted for 51.9% (40/77) of the lesions and the malignancy rate was 9.1% (7/77). Three were submucosal cancers. Seventy-one percent of the carcinomas were less than 10 mm in size, and the only submucosal cancer was below 5 mm in size and was a depressed lesion. Carcinoid tumors accounted for 15.6% of the lesions, and chronic nonspecific inflammation for 9.1%. An EPMR was performed on 4 lesions which were larger than 10 mm. There were no complications such as bleeding, perforation, or recurrence.
CONCLUSIONS
EMR and EPMR are useful endoscopic resection techniques, especially for sessile, flat, and depressed neoplastic lesions. Lesions up to 15~20 mm in size are good candidates for EMR and those up to 40 mm for EPMR. At the same time, a carefully performed procedure is mandatory to prevent recurrence or complications such as bleeding or perforation.

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